Democratic and Republican Party History

Democratic and Republican Party History The Democratic Party came from the Anti-federalists before Americas independence from Britain rule. The party was organized by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, along with other influential opponents of the Federalists in 1792. The Republicans party is the younger of the two parties, founded in 1854 by anti-slavery activists and modernizers. The party rose to prominence with the election of Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican president. Over the past years the two major political parties have been given colors, to which we can associate them with in the election. Republicans have been given the color red and Democrats the color blue. The Republican (red states) are strongest in the South and West, and weakest in the Northeast and the Pacific Coast. The strongest of the red states are Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska, and in the western states of Wyoming, Utah, and Idaho. The Democrats (blue states) once were strongest in the Southeast but now they are strongest in the Northeast, Great Lakes and along the Pacific Coast. Dominating in California and Hawaii. The Democratic Party and Republican Party dominate America but differ greatly in their philosophies and ideas. Democrats have a philosophy that is Liberal. Founded on the idea of liberty and equality. Generally they support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of religion, free trade, and a right to life, liberty, and property. Republicans believe in a social philosophy, which reflects American Conservatism in the U.S. Political Spectrum. Republicans support a pro-business platform, with the further foundations in economic libertarianism and a brand of social conservatism increasingly based on the viewpoints of the Religious Right. Both parties differ in their Economic ideas. Democrats favor minimum wage and progressive taxation Higher tax rates for higher income people. Republicans believe taxes shouldnt be increased for anyone and that wages should be set by the free market. Military is a big topic, Democrats want to decrease spending and Republicans want to increase spending on military. Stand on gay marriage is another big topic, with Democrats supporting and Republicans opposing. Its a never ending battle. Stands on the Death Penalty differ also. Democrats, while support for the death penalty is strong among Democrats, opponents of the death penalty are a substantial fraction of the Democratic base. A large majority of Republicans support the Death Penalty. Abortion has been a big topic for decades and they still differ in their beliefs. Democrats believe it should be legal, supporting Roe v. Wade. Republicans believe it should not be legal, opposing Roe v. Wade. This is where Pro-Life and Pro-Choice come from. Another belief the two parties disagree on is Social and Human Ideas. Democrats are based on a community and social responsibility and Republicans are based on individual rights and justice. Social democratic views improves public service by creating a government system that is able to discover citizens that suffer from unequal circumstances that make it more difficult to fulfill their ambitions. Once this is discovered, the government provides the service to help these individu als. Social conservatism is a political idea that focuses on traditional values. General principles: favor pro-life, opposes euthanasia, embryonic stem cell research, and abortion. Now not all Republicans and Democrats believe what their party believes. There are plenty of people that go both ways and other that are directly in the middle. That is why we have so many undecided or independent voters in our elections. Influences that third parties have on American politics are that they bring more light to the issues. Third party voters will mostly go with the party that is closet to independent values. Even though third parties dont win elections, a lot of people vote for them. Taking votes away from the other parties, which has an Impact in the election. John McCain would have won in 2008 if it wasnt for third parties. Many laws were first introduced and then raised by third parties. One example would be prohibition, the legal act of prohibiting the manufacturing of alcohol. I identify with the Republican Party, Im conservative. First off I do not believe in distribution of wealth. I dont see how you can take money away from people that work hard and give it to the people that wont work, sit around all day, or use drugs. Living off the Government shouldnt be a choice for a career in our Nation. Even if the Government taxed the rich they wouldnt even come close to touching our national debt. Small businesses and the wealthy actually help the economy a lot, by purchasing goods from local businesses or running a business and giving jobs to the American People. I believe the Democrats want to tax the rich more and give back to the poor so they look good and get the votes, just my two cents. Increase spending on Military, why wouldnt you? We have the strongest military in the world and the Democrats want to decrease spending? It shows weakness, we have to be strong. Now I dont mean we need to be in every country in the world and be protecting all our allies. We need to keep our military strong because we never know when someone will try to attack us. This has been proven in 2001 with 9/11 and also the attack in Benghazi on 9/11/12. If we let the world know we are decreasing spending on our military they might not think twice about attacking. My stand on abortion, first I will let you know I am very religious. So my opinions will come from religious beliefs and also how I feel about abortion. I support abortion in the case of rape or if it is harmful to the women. If a 12 year old is raped then she should be allowed to have an abortion because she is too young and birth could potentially result in death. In the case of just rape the women should go to the hospital and get a rap kit from a doctor. If you do choose to wait months before an abortion then I do not support it in that case. I oppose gay marriage; I dont think it should be legal for the same sex to marry. I dont see any positives that could come from it. It wouldnt help our economy; it wouldnt help our states or government. I feel the Democrats are for it just to get votes; even President Obama came out in an interview and said he supports gay marriage. Thats one of the main reasons I feel its getting harder for Republicans to get a person in the white house cause the Democrats support almost everything the Republicans dont, abortion, gay marriage, Immigration, Etc. Since the division of the Republican Party in the election of 1912, the Democratic Party has consistently positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party in economic as well as social matters. The two parties, in my mind, will never come to a compromise. They are too far apart in their belief, thats why we continue to refer to them as left and right. The third parties will always be around, though they may never win. They will continue to propose new laws and take away votes from the two major parties. I identify with the Republican Party because I feel they are right, their beliefs align with mine.

General Overview Of Ecommerce Information Technology Essay

General Overview Of Ecommerce Information Technology Essay Electronic commerce is the term used for any type of business or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of products, services and information over electronic systems such as the internet and other computer networks. The trader and customer are not face to face at any point during these transactions, the business being conducted remotely, regardless of location. E-commerce covers a range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites, through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. Almost all big retailers are present on the World Wide Web. Although most electronic commerce involves the physical transportation of items in one way or another, a large percentage of e-commerce is conducted entirely electronically for virtual items, such as access to certain information on a website, purchasing software or other on-line services. E-business is a superset of e-commerce  [1]  , as it is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. The financing and payment aspects of business transactions are facilitated by the exchange of data. E-commerce can be mainly divided into Business-to-Business electronic commerce (B2B) and Business-to-Consumer electronic commerce (B2C). B2B implies that both sellers (suppliers) and buyers are business corporations, while B2C implies that buyers are individual consumers. Business-to-business e-commerce differs significantly from business-to-consumer e-commerce. Most B2B commerce is done through negotiated contracts which allow the seller to anticipate and plan for amount a buyer will purchase; while B2C merchants, on the other hand, sell on a first-come, first serve basis. 1.1.1. B2B e-commerce B2B e-commerce does not just consist of the transaction via the Internet, but also the exchange of information before and the service after a transaction. From the purchasing companys point of view, B2B e-commerce is a medium for facilitating procurement management by reducing the purchase price and the cycle time.  [2]   The key players in a B2B e-commerce transaction usually include selling and buying companies, deliverers, and often some type of electronic intermediaries, or third-party service providers. This type of business transaction may take many forms, yet most fall into three categories. They classified depending on who controls the marketplace: the supplier, the buyer or the intermediary: (a) In a Supplier-Oriented Marketplace: many buyers face few suppliers. (b) In a Buyer-Orientated Marketplace: few buyers face many suppliers. (c) In an Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace: many buyers face many suppliers. A) Supplier-Oriented Marketplace In a Supplier-Oriented Marketplace customers are offered a wide variety of products and services which support them in their own businesses. The markets involve property, exchanges, auctions and bid systems. Suppliers are offered new market channels in marketing and distribution by using Supplier-Oriented Marketplaces, as products may be sold directly to customers without the use of intermediaries. Successful examples of this type of business model are Dell and Cisco.  [3]  Both companies sell their products via the internet. However, there are thousands of other companies that use the Supplier-Oriented model as well. Ciscos mainly provides electronic support using the internet. Its main applications include software downloads, defect tracking and technical advice. Cisco also sells routers, switches and other network interconnect devices. Since the company first began providing electronic support online in 1994 its productivity had increased by about 200 to 300 percent per year. What is more, the online technical support made it possible for Cisco to reduce technical support staff costs by approximately US $125 million. The internet Product Center also allows its customers to purchase any product over the internet, saving time for both Cisco and its customers. Cisco has estimated that by putting its application online, the company saves over US $360 million per year as a result of almost completely eliminating distribution, packaging, duplication and printing costs. B) Buyer-Oriented Marketplace When using a Supplier-Oriented Marketplace, buyers have to search electronic stores and malls to find and compare suppliers and producers. As this could be a very costly and time consuming operation for buyers, especially those who purchase thousands of items over the internet, they prefer to open their own marketplace, which is known as a Buyer-Oriented Marketplace.  [4]  An example of such a marketplace is GEs electronic bidding site which boosts the companys purchasing process.  [5]  These types of bidding sites allow suppliers to download project information from the internet and submit bids for projects. Buyers can more easily evaluate a suppliers bid and thus may negotiate electronically. As a result, a buyer will accept a bid that best meets their requirements. By doing so, they can identify and build partnerships with suppliers worldwide. Their specifications and information can be rapidly distributed to suppliers and consequently, bids are quickly received and compar ed from a large number of suppliers as to negotiate better prices. C) Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace The Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace, as its name suggests, is established by an intermediary company which runs a marketplace where business buyers and sellers can meet. There are two types of such business models: horizontal and vertical marketplaces. While vertical marketplaces concentrate on one industrial sector, horizontal marketplaces offer services to all industrial sectors. The Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace is a neutral business platform which offers classical economical functions of a usual market; the only difference is that the participants are not physically present. This business model contains catalogues which present information on products and prices. Consequently, the marketplace makes possible the comparisons and the transparency of the products. Such marketplaces can also offer auctions, which can be organized by sellers (where products are sold) or by buyers (in this case, orders are sold). In addition, electronic functions are offered so as participants can negotiate in real time.  [6]   An example of an Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace is Buzzsaw  [7]  which is a vertical electronic marketplace which concentrates on the building industry. A construction project involves many different parties, such as building contractors, builders, architects, merchants and the owner of the building many of which are regional sellers. The software that Buzzsaw offers can improve the planning process as well as the communication between the parties involved. Alongside the software, detailed information about the building industry is provided, such as news affecting the building sector or a local weather forecast. Given that the marketplace also provides the option to do business, all relevant products for the building industry can be traded. The Web site also offers search engines so as to find wanted products and buyers and sellers can insert offers and requests on the marketplace. 1.1.2. B2C e-commerce B2C e-commerce is basically a concept of online marketing and distributing of products and services over the internet. Many businesses prefer this method because they can reach more customers, service them better and make more sales while spending less to do so. For the consumer, it is relatively easy to appreciate the importance of e-commerce. Many prefer not to waste time fighting the very crowded supermarkets, and shop on-line at any time in virtual Internet shopping malls, and have the goods delivered home directly, all from the comfort of their own homes. B2C e-commerce is conducted essentially by three types of business models  [8]  : (a) Direct Sellers are online retailers that sell directly to customers only over the Internet. There are two types of direct sellers: e-tailers and manufactures. E-tailers, such as Amazon.com, ship the products directly to the consumer, wholesaler or manufacturer for delivery, upon receiving an order. They do not have traditional stores that customers can visit and they do not sell offline. Manufacturers, sell to consumers directly via the internet. They remove intermediaries and establish a direct relationship with the customer. These types of retailers are present on the Web as well as have traditional stores or sell offline through catalogues or mail-order. They are called brick-and morter retail businesses because they are merchants with multi-channel distributions supported by online stores. This process has been used for years, for example, catalogue companies such as Dell.com. (b) Online Intermediaries are companies that bring together sellers and buyers to complete a business transaction, in exchange for a percentage of the transactions value. Presently, these types of businesses make up the largest category of B2C companies. There are two types of online intermediaries: brokers and informediaries. Brokers facilitate transactions between sellers and buyers online. Orbitz.com is an example of a popular B2C online broker, which acts an intermediary between a consumer and multiple suppliers of airline carriers, hotel chains, automobile rentals, and other such companies. Informediary is a non-biased intermediary between those who supply information and those who want it. It can be any business that provides information based products and services within a supply chain. For example, an informediary may gather, store and sell information about a Web site. The information is considered to be valuable to organizations for target marketing, price setting, negotiations, advertising and market research. (c) A Portal provides the means of electronic access to Web content, resources and services. A portal typically has a search engine which is the central point to the services provided. The most popular search portal Web sites are Google.com, Yahoo.com and MSN.com. They have a large number of consumers and businesses utilizing their services each day around the world. Other services included on these types of websites include e-mail, chat as well as news and entertainment links. 1.2. A Brief History of E-commerce E-commerce and its meaning have changed a lot over the past 40 years. At first, the term e-commerce meant the performance of commercial transactions electronically, using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT), the electronic exchange of business documents and information form one computer to another. EDI originated in the mid 1960s and by the mid 1970s was formalized by the Accredited Standards Committee.  [9]  The new technology allowed business companies and organizations to send commercial documentation electronically, such as purchase orders or invoices. It was in 1991 that E-commerce became possible, when the internet was opened to commercial use. Since then, e-commerce has experienced a rapid intensification; thousands of businesses have started online companies and provide online services. Although, it wasnt until 1994 that the internet began to gain popularity among the general public, and by the year 2000 a large number of companies from around the world had already started to offer their services on the World Wide Web. By then, people had given another meaning to electronic commerce: the process of purchasing goods and services over the internet using electronic communication.  [10]   Among the first internet company to allow electronic transactions, Amazon and E-bay are the most notable as they continue to be successful to this day. According to study conducted by internetretailer.com in 2009, the top 10 most famous worldwide internet retailers are: Amazon, Otto, Staples, Office Depot, Dell, Arcandor, Hewlett Packard, Tesco, OfficeMax and Apple.  [11]  According to all-rankings.com, the top ten most purchased products online are: travel tickets, holidays, books, concert/theatre/festival tickets, clothes, electrical goods, CDs, cinema tickets, DVDs and music downloads.  [12]  

DIBS Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Sometimes he sat mute and unmoving all morning or crawled about the schoolroom floor oblivious to the other children or to his teacher.† The book Dibs is a testimony of a child who seemed to be mentally retarded because he has created his own world inside of him. In her book, Virginia Axline proves that the therapy by the play is a way of curing people such as Dibs. During her book, she gives lecture to the reader of a recording taken from the sessions with the little child. During this expose, we will develop Dib’s relation with adults in particular his teachers, parents and grand mother. Then we will analyze another relation: the one with his therapist. In the second part the phenomena of rejection will be analyzed in both sides: in the mother and the father side but also with Dibs itself. Later, we will try to understand which role play therapy had occurred on Dibs change. When the books starts, Dibs is in the school since two years. At the beginning he refused to talk. Sometimes he could stay dumb and still during an entire morning. Other times, he could have violent bout of anger when it was time to go back home, which provoked towards teachers and director of the school a big anxiety. Was he mentally retarded? Was he suffering of a mental illness since his birth? Did his brain have received a shock? No one knew, even his parents who always refused to talk about their son’s attitude. But as the author, Virginia Axline, said â€Å"there was something about Dibs behavior that defied the teachers to categorize him, glibly and routinely, and send him on his way. His behavior was so uneven. At one time, he seemed to be extremely retarded mentally. Another time he would quickly and quietly do something that indicated he might even have superior intelligence† (Axline, Virginia Dibs in search of Self, 15). The staff meeting of class finally dec ide to help Dibs and to do something for him. It is at this point that the Doctor Virginia Axline, â€Å"specialized in working with children and parents† is called. Dibs relationship with his teachers was non existent. His reaction was the one of an assisted person. When it was going-home time, the child used to stay in the class without a gesture waiting for the teachers to put his coat on while saying â€Å"No go home! No go home! No go home!† (Dibs in search of Self, 1... ...ip with the examiner, whom he had never seen before† explains Virginia Axline in her books. The results of Dibs indicated that Dibs was an â€Å"exceptionally gifted child† capable of getting a score of 168 at a I.Q at fifteen years old. The reader will found in annex, a letter written by Dibs himself when he was fifteen in order to protest against an injustice. This letter shows first of all a maturity certain of the adolescent and the miracle that Play Therapy had on him. I found personally incredible to realize that this child who was predominate to stay in his own world all his life had been capable to write this letter where the theme of humiliation and revenge are once again present. Works Cited Axline, Virginia. Dibs in Search of Self. New York: Ballantine Books, 1964 Axline, Virginia. Play Therapy. New York: Ballantine Books, 1969 Battachi, Marco W. Une contribution à   la psychologie des à ©motions : l’enfant humilià ©. Paris: n.p, 1993 Brenner, Charles. An Elementary Textbook of Psychoanalysis. New York: Anchor Books Doubleday, 1973   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Winnicott, Donald. Playing and Therapy. London: Tavistock Publications, 1971   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Diferencias Entre Investigación Cualitativa y Cuantitativa :: El método científico

El objetivo de cualquier ciencia es adquirir conocimientos y la eleccià ³n del mà ©todo adecuado que nos permita conocer la realidad es por tanto fundamental1. El problema surge al aceptar como ciertos los conocimientos errà ³neos o viceversa. Los mà ©todos inductivos y deductivos tienen objetivos diferentes y podrà ­an ser resumidos como desarrollo de la teorà ­a y anà ¡lisis de la teorà ­a respectivamente. Los mà ©todos inductivos està ¡n generalmente asociados con la investigacià ³n cualitativa mientras que el mà ©todo deductivo està ¡ asociado frecuentemente con la investigacià ³n cuantitativa. Los cientà ­ficos sociales en salud que utilizan abordajes cualitativos enfrentan en la actualidad problemas epistemolà ³gicos y metodolà ³gicos que tienen que ver con el poder y la à ©tica en la generacià ³n de datos asà ­ como con la validez externa de los mismos2. La investigacià ³n cuantitativa es aquella en la que se recogen y analizan datos cuantitativos sobre variables. La investigacià ³n cualitativa evita la cuantificacià ³n. Los investigadores cualitativos hacen registros narrativos de los fenà ³menos que son estudiados mediante tà ©cnicas como la observacià ³n participante y las entrevistas no estructuradas3. La diferencia fundamental entre ambas metodologà ­as es que la cuantitativa estudia la asociacià ³n o relacià ³n entre variables cuantificadas y la cualitativa lo hace en contextos estructurales y situacionales4. La investigacià ³n cualitativa trata de identificar la naturaleza profunda de las realidades, su sistema de relaciones, su estructura dinà ¡mica. La investigacià ³n cuantitativa trata de determinar la fuerza de asociacià ³n o correlacià ³n entre variables, la generalizacià ³n y objetivacià ³n de los resultados a travà ©s de una muestra para hacer inferencia a una poblacià ³n de la cual toda muestra p rocede. Tras el estudio de la asociacià ³n o correlacià ³n pretende, a su vez, hacer inferencia causal que explique por quà © las cosas suceden o no de una forma determinada. Las diferencias mà ¡s ostensibles entre ambas metodologà ­as se muestran en la tabla 1 5-6. Los fundamentos de la metodologà ­a cuantitativa podemos encontrarlos en el positivismo que surge en el primer tercio del siglo XIX como una reaccià ³n ante el empirismo que se dedicaba a recoger datos sin introducir los conocimientos mà ¡s allà ¡ del campo de la observacià ³n. Alguno de los cientà ­ficos de esta à ©poca dedicados a temas relacionados con las ciencias de la salud son Pasteur y Claude Bernard, siendo este à ºltimo el que propuso la experimentacià ³n en medicina1. A principios del siglo XX, surge el neopositivismo o positivismo là ³gico siendo una de las aportaciones mà ¡s importantes la induccià ³n probabilà ­stica.

HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers

HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge. HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge.

Homework&Elementary school Essay

Homework can be defined as the tasks given to the students by their class teachers, which has to be completed outside of the class. Homework usually has features that some amount of reading should be performed, writing to be completed, problems to be solved, and other skills to be practiced based on the nature of the assignments. Homework could be designed carefully to fulfill the needs of the academic curriculum, and prepare the students for upcoming lessons, extend what they know by having them apply it to new situations, or to integrate their abilities by applying many different skills to a single task. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to participate in their children’s education (Richards-Babb, Drelick, Henry, & Robertson-Honecker, 2011). Purposes of Homework The purpose of the homework is that it should reinforce ideas, concepts, and knowledge of the subject matter taught. It is necessary in case of teaching a subject such as math, physics or chemistry. Through homework, students should review and practice what they have learned in the classroom, and prepare for the forthcoming lesson. It should offer to the students to study a subject in depth. Homework should let students investigate on their own, and learn how to find answers to questions. It should allow students build, work as a team, on their own time, with their own schedule. So that they can plan out themselves how much effort they need to supply in order to carry out the assignments successfully (Homework: is it worth it?, 2012). Home work also helps the teacher for the continuous monitor and evaluation of the progress of the students. Homework facilitates teachers to find out student’s organizational skills, time management. Another purpose of the homework is that it makes the students to be responsible and accountable. It should create an opportunity for parents to involve in their child’s learning and progress. Homework strengthens the home-school links (Heitzmann, 2007). Amounts of Homework The amount of homework varies based on the course and the ability level of the students. An investigation conducted by the United States Bureau of the Census (1984) found that â€Å"public elementary school students reported  spending an average of 4.9 hours and private school elementary students 5.5 hours a week on homework. Public high school students reported doing 6.5 hours and private school students 14.2 hours (Mendicino, Razzaq, & Heffernan, 2009). Recent research studies by the Brown Center on Education Policy concluded that the majority of U.S. students (83% of nine-year-olds; 66% of thirteen-year-olds; 65% of seventeen-year-olds) spend less than an hour a day on homework, and this has held true for most of the past 50 years. In the last 20 years, homework has increased only in the lower grade levels, where it least matters (and indeed, may be counterproductive)† (â€Å"Homework: is it worth it?† 2012). Amounts of Homework As a saying revels ‘too many cooks spoil the broth’, too much time spending on homework may lightly have the negative effects. It is said that generally homework does appear to result in higher levels of achievement for older students (at the secondary level). At the same time to the students aged between 11 to13, homework appears to be of benefit, but not to the same degree as for older students. For these students, spending more than an hour or two on homework does not result in greater benefit. So, it is a vital factor for the teacher to ensure that homework assignments are an appropriate length for the developmental level of their students (Too Much Homework Can Be Counterproductive, 2005). In America, NEA and the National PTA recommendations are in line with those suggested by Harris Cooper: 10 to 20 minutes per night in the first grade, and an additional 10 minutes per grade level thereafter (giving 2 hours for 12th grade). In Britain, the Government has laid down guidelines, recommending that children as young as five should do up to an hour a week of homework on reading, spelling and numbers, rising to 1.5 hours per week for 8-9 year olds, and 30 minutes a day for 10-11 year olds. The primary motivation for the Government policy on this seems to be a hope that this will reduce the time children spend watching TV, and, presumably, instill good study habits. Two researchers from Penn State say that instead of improving educational achievement in countries around the world, increases in homework may actually undercut teaching effectiveness and worsen disparities in student learning (Too much homework can be counterproductive, 2005). Effects of homework Harris Cooper, Ph.D., a psychology professor at the University of Missouri, has reviewed more than 100 studies on the effectiveness of homework. In general, he has found that the benefits of doing homework seem to depend on the student’s grade level. He also points out that â€Å"In high school, students who regularly do homework outperform those who do not, as measured by standardized tests and grades. In middle school, homework is half as effective, and in elementary school it has no apparent measurable effect on achievement† (Molland, 2012). Students’ self regulation processes also developed through the homework along with its effect on academic achievements. Zimmerman says that Self-regulation of learning involves learners setting goals, selecting appropriate learning strategies, maintaining motivation, and monitoring and evaluating academic progress Darshanand Ramdass and Barry J. Zimmerman (2011) points out that â€Å" a longitudinal study with fifth-grade students showed that doing homework fosters self-regulation skills and reading achievement†. Types of homework Academically, there are four kinds of assignments or homework. They are, practice homework, preparation homework, extension homework and creative homework. Practice homework meant for repeating the same kind of work again and again in order to remember a skill, especially while learning mathematics, vocabulary and spelling. Preparation homework intended to the preparation of the next day lesson. The purpose of extension homework is to make the students to be able to connect and separate topics. Creative homework is a challenging one which meant for using different skills to show what the students have learned in the classroom. Online Homework

Organizational Behaviour

disposals and look put over of Contents Introduction 4 nurture kayoedcome 1 view the homophile affinity between organisational societal expression and close.. 4 1. 1 Compargon and tell apart contrary organisational constructions and purification4 1. 2 apologize how the relationship between an governances well-disposed cheek and glossiness prat concern on the performance of the business. 1. 3 grounds the factors which influence man-to-man manner at deed. 6 nurture Outcomes 2 situate wind cableing approaches to prudence and draws 7 2. 1 compargon the metier of non-homogeneous lead zeals in opposite placements7 2. 2 rationalise how organisational surmisal underpins the approach pattern of circumspection7 2. 3 evaluate the antithetic approaches to solicitude utilize by diverse musical ar constitutements8 data Outcomes 3 say tr blocks of development motivatingal theories in institutions.. 9 3. 1 converse the opposition that diametric drawing cardship flairs whitethorn rent on motif in systems in periods of transmit9 3. Comp be the practise of antithetical pauperizational theories indoors the attainplace9 3. 3 Evaluate the scram apply offulness of a involve surmise for managers10 breeding Outcome 4 rove mechanisms for developing potent team hightail it in disposals.. 11 4. 1 explain the record of bases and gathering style inside arrangings12 4. 2 discuss factors that whitethorn win or inhibit the development of useful team live on in organizations12 4. evaluate the cushion of engineering on team pop offing in spite of appearance a achi sluice organization. 13 Conclusion 12 Introduction The employees of an organization trick be motivated by the ceaseless organisational flori complaisantisation and the structural representation of the company. The assigning involves the comprehension of the relationship between organisational refinement and well-disposed organi zation, the lead approaches, the prefatory concepts or so motivating etc. cheekal complex body part al milds the expressed apportioning of responsibilities for unlike purposes and processes to divers(prenominal) entities such(prenominal)(prenominal) as the branch, department, put to survivegroup and al closely(prenominal) maven. validational burnish potbelly be reflected finished the systematic procedure of the organisational structure. Learning come out of the clo actcome 1 pick up the relationship between organisational structure and finale. 1. 1 Comp atomic number 18 and contrast unlike organizational structures and assimilationsAccording toSchein(1992), gloss is the virtu e rattlingy rocky organizational attri unlesse to veer, outlasting organizational products, run, founders and attractership and altogether separate physical attri entirelyes of the organization. glossiness and structure is available like a backb unmatched in the organiza tion. It fabricates a advanced concepts and strategies which can affect any direct of planning. When it applies on any hierarchy organization. So then implications of organizational culture and structure go forth be implemented to the governance companies etc. Different form of composition socializations * Power destination * Person culture * Task cultivation Role marketplace-gardening Power culture is centralized this culture whitethorn found in the beautiful harmings a business control is the basal factor the decisiveness developr is exclusively thither is no consultancy the organization may react quickly to the danger. Basic each(prenominal)y this word form of culture is a welfargon non profitable, charities and for the social activities. This kind of culture can be in the group or unmarried aim. It is basic eithery a team work based approach to put d take a particular task. This culture is to a greater extent reciprocal the business where the organization dispense with for engraft a proposal team to finish up the project in the particular date.Common in intimately organizations today is a voice culture. In a portion culture, organizations ar split into versatile functions and each man-to-man within the function is assigned a particular role. Different form of giving medication Structures * Functional structure * Divisional structure * Matrix structure Employees within the operating(a) divisions of an organization tend to perform a specialized target of tasks. This leads to operational efficiencies within that group. As a whole, a useable organization is scoop suited as a producer of standardized safe(p)s and go at large volume and base cost.Also c all in alled a product structure, the divisional structure groups each organizational function into a division. Each division may beat its get sales, engineering and trade departments. The matrix structure groups employees by twain function and product. This structure can corporate trust the outstrip of twain separate structures. A matrix organization frequently uses teams of employees to pass work, in fiat to take value of the strengths, as well as substantiate up for the weaknesses, of utilitarian and decentralized forms. 1. rationalize how the relationship between an organizations structure and culture can preserve on the performance of the business. For an organisation to earn its goals and objectives in that respect essentialinessiness be concordance between its structure and culture. If the twain ar non compatible then it testament become harder for the organisation to contact its objectives and in the long run may raze threaten the existence of the organization. An organizational structure populates of activities such as task apportioning, coordination and supervision, which atomic number 18 directed towards the proceeding of organizational aims. (Pugh, D. S. ed. 1990). organisation culture is the set of values, rules, beliefs, attitudes and regulations these factors can cooperate members of the organization to hunch over how we leave behind Work. For example, ticktock Company is the biggest multinational company with numerous product lines. Employees be functional specialists teach gibe to the product or grocery store distri providedion. Develop the style of employees they develop culture which they need. finis depends upon the constitution of employees it consort to that culture. civilization does non remain the aforementi championd(prenominal) but the un removeed culture leave varietyd consort to naked as a jaybird environment. either organization has their own culture and structure its genuinely grave for every organization in a culture there ar close to flock belonging to the distinguishable groups. any organization un countermandably safe(p) culture, good social norms, valves and ethical behaviour. 1. 3 plow the factors which influence individual behav ior at work. How individuals be contain and how organisations can motivate them to eliminate more to the organisation has been the subject of various research and galore(postnominal) well cognize writers confine written discussions on this subject.The behavior of passel and other organisms or still mechanisms falls within a lay with well-nigh behavior being common, whatever unusual, roughly refreshing, and some outside agreeable limits. Human behavior is throwd end-to-end an individuals entire life age. The factors and the acclivitous points that influence the individual behavior at work ar contactred below * mogul to perform a job * carriage to the organization * wantal factors * Organizational ending and faith * Present Condition of the somebody Learning Outcomes 2 attend divergent approaches to heed and lead 2. comp ar the cost- in effect(p)ness of different loss attractionship styles in different organizations Different form of drawing cardshi p styles of drawing cardship argon busheleeing below * dictatorial The authoritarian draws style is when the leader spends nigh of his time giving out instructions. This type of leader tells their followers what to do, how to do it and when to do it. * Autocratic leadership This style is use when leaders tell their employees what they want do and how they want it obtained, without getting the advice of their followers. * Delegative lead In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the stopping points.However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that argon made. This is employ when employees atomic number 18 able to analyze the note and determine what involve to be done and how to do it. * Democratic / Participative The democratic leader on the other hand, encourages follower to get into and give ideas. This type of leader allows the others to get involved in the decision fashioning process. * Democratic leadership This style involves the leader including superstar or more employees in the decision fashioning process (determining what to do and how to do it).However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. 2. 2 explain how organizational theory underpins the bore of management. Taylor (1911) observed that some workers were more talented than others, and that tear down suffer wholenesss were very much unmotivated. He observed that most workers who argon compeld to perform exigent tasks tend to work at the long-play rate that goes unpunished. Taylor used the term slacking and observed that, when paid the akin amount, workers go away tend to do the amount of work that the bumper-to-bumper among them does.Many passel strive to attach to the theory to overhaul them become best(p) at their jobs or more sure-fire in life, although this may lead to them having to apply some of their personal principles in rule to succeed. wholeness example of following organizational theory in the financial sphere would be an employee or manager who wants to accredit how to progress to goals by having a set structure to follow. In addition, some oneness in a Human Resources welkin lead make believe to make decisions throughout their on the job(p) day that leave behind undoubtedly c fall downe the structure and practice of a on the job(p) day for all other employees in the company.If an individual gets so wrapped up in stressful to fit the organise of what they interpret their role should be in hurt of organizational theory, they may pop off to neglect other aras of business. In the same way, management theory may similarly underpin the personal values of some individuals. 2. 3 evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations i of the sympathys why managers are having such hassle in applying management methods to administration problems is this there are numerous different schools of notion on management approaches, and each of these sch ools has its own proponents.Generally, an original proponent makes his or her piss in that particular concept, and becomes an expert and a guru of it. on that point is little incentive to integrate this one approach with others. - way flexibility - A manager who only has experience in one approach, such as project management, may require effortfuly in adapting to ever- c take careing demands. A manager can be much more efficacious if he or she is able to conduct a management approach that is most appropriate to the desired need or goal.This adaptability or eclectic flexibility may manifest very useful in the changing government management environment. The Toyota representation is a set of principles and behaviors that underlie the Toyota Motor Corporations managerial approach and production system. Toyota fetching signal summed up its philosophy, values and manufacturing ideals in 2001, calling it The Toyota dash 2001. It lie downs of principles in ii hear areas cont inuous amendment, and respect for people. Liker (2004), calls the Toyota Way, a system intentional to provide the tools for people to continually im attest their work. The system can be summarized in 14 principles. - - - - Learning Outcomes 3 Understand ways of exploitation demandal theories in organizations 3. 1 talk over the impact that different leadership styles may have on pauperization in organizations in periods of transport motivating can be considered in dickens major modes, intrinsic and extrinsic. congenital demand is that which comes from within the individual, team, group, or organization.Its writ of accomplishment brings intimately production and self-actualization. Extrinsic motivation is that which originates outside of the individual or organization under scrutiny. The fulfillment of external motivation heads in what Lawler (1973) calls social rewards. Dyer, (1972) defines three areas stirred by motivation. A Change in amount, quality, or direction of performance. Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior particularly military personnel behavior. These reasons may include a drive, a need, a desire to bring home the bacon a goal, a state of being, or an ideal.In military man beings, motivation involves some(prenominal) conscious and subconscious mind drives. Developing leadership culture all starts with you and all your colleagues in senior leadership . Three statements can be pointed that would not find in the treatment of transmit . First, in this naked as a jaybird world order, your modernistic work as a leader is about developing culture and talents not about assigning it to someone else that all culture development & stir starts with you. Second, the make to favored transformation is doing the work in the senior leadership culture initiative before taking the change to nerve centre of the organizationThird ,transformation is serious it work for seriou s people, it is about getting larger minds to deal with attachments larger and complex issues that testament continue to confront you, your leadership and your organization 3. 2 Compare the industriousness of different motivational theories within the workplace Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior particularly clement behavior. These reasons may include a drive, a need, a desire to achieve a goal, a state of being, or an ideal. In man beings, motivation involves both conscious and subconscious drives.Motivation Theories Cognitive racket Theory Cognition is any part of knowledge an attitude, emotion, belief, value, behavior, etc. When two cognitions are in direct employment with one other a state of d interpret is produced dissonance is the term for the dread. Compatible cognitions are consonant i. e. they are in symmetry. A classic example of Cognitive divergence is holding the belief that smoking is p roblematic for you sequence continuing the behavior of smoking. These two cognitions are in direct impinge with each other.The belief that smoking is braggart(a) is part of one neural mesh perhaps associated with health and fitness man the behavior of smoking is part of some other profits having to do with emphasis management, how to hang with friends, or the like. So, these cognitions exist in different locations in the brain. Both are nerve-racking to carry through something all definitive(predicate) for the self tautness management and hanging with friends is important. Maslows Hierarchy of inescapably The American psychologist Abraham Maslow devised a six- direct hierarchy of of necessity that motivate or drive gentlemans gentleman behavior.I believe that each of these need essential be met in order for one to achieve happiness. Maslow progressively ranks human needs as follows Physiological food, shelter, clothing credentials and safety Love and experienc eings of belonging Competence, prestige, and admire Curiosity and the need to know Self-Actualization 3. 3 Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers Motivation is a very important for an organization be engender of the following benefits it provides- * Builds genial relationship Im proves level of efficiency of employees * Leads to skill of organizational goals * Leads to stability of work core * Puts human resources into action Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 carry The Human Side Of Enterprise. McGregors XY Theory ashes central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. McGregors ideas suggest that there are two underlying approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results.Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces break performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop. Learning Outcome 4 Understand mechanisms for developing trenchant teamwork in organizations 4. 1 explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations Groups may be classified into two different types * internal groups * Formal groups Formal Groups Formal groups are relieve oneselfd to achieve set goals and have particularised responsibilities within an organization. Formal groups within organizations are know as work teams or simply teams.Examples of work teams include, call concenter teams and project teams. on the loose(p) Groups wanton groups consist of alliances that have no formal structure. lax or social clubs. For instance, unless the HRD function communicates the policies all the way and cogently, the employees would not introduce and comply with them wholeheartedly. Hence, stamp group behavior is important for organizations. However, this cannot be construed to besotted that all employees must ideate and act alike. On the contrary, innovation cannot make pass when group be havior is the same crosswise all levels. 4. discuss factors that may kindle or inhibit the development of useful teamwork in organizations. Creating and sustaining effective teamwork requires persistent switch and discovery of good practice. Organisations which try to create positive relationships between employees and makes each employee find as part of the community, will have a greater chance of achieving effective teamwork across the organisation. An effective team requires glueyness that is held together by several factors. In order to understand how to assemble an efficient team, first need to know the factors poignant effective teamwork.The factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective aggroupwork in organizations are * Communication skills and process * Inter-team co-operation. * lead Technique * Task strength * team up dynamism * group innovation * squad members well-being * aggroup viability * Team operative environment, process or tools 4. 3 evaluate the impact of engineering on team functioning within a given organization. New engineering has been injected into the workplace at an exponentially join on rate Many companies see parvenu technology as the means to increment profit margins and to remain competitive in a rapidly evolving marketplace.The introduction of technology, specially schooling technology has changed composition of subsisting team models and has introduced unused team models such as realistic teams. Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004), define practical(prenominal) teams in their literature review expression as groups of geographically, organizationally and/or time dispersed workers brought together by information and telecommunication technologies to accomplish one or more organizational tasks. Conclusion An organization can do better through the practice of Team work and meet utilization of technologies and resources. In the report we have overlooked different management approaches, sty les and the motivational approaches which can reflect through the organization structures and culture. So consequently the organization must review the tasks that have been performing gibe to the management plan and identify the best way to actOrganizational behaviour1.What is the importance of interpersonal skills?The importance of interpersonal skills is that you need to understand how to deal with other people and involve your acceptance of others, without disfavour in order to achieve your task.2.What do managers do in terms of functions, roles, and skills?Management is a process that is used to accomplish organizational goals that is, a process that is used to achieve what an organization wants to achieve. Managers are the people to whom this management task is assigned.In terms of Functions, Managers do Planning, Organizing, Directing and Controlling.To be an effective manager, it is necessary to possess many skills. non all managers have all the skills that would make the m the most effective manager. As technology advances and grows, the skills that are needed by managers are constantly changing. Different levels of management in the organizational structure as well require different types of management skills. Generally, however, managers need to have communication skills, human skills, computer skills, time-management skills, and practiced skills.3.What is organizational behavior (OB)?.Organizational Behavior (OB) is the mull of the organization itself and also of the porthole between human behavior and the organization. A field that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organizations in order to achieve the goals.4.Why is it important to support intuition with systematic study? consciously or unconsciously we are all students of behavior. We observe others and attempt to interpret what we see. We read people all the time and nevertheless attempt to predict what they might do under different s ets of conditions. We develop some generalizations in explaining and predicting what people do and will do. These generalizations come as a result of observing, sensing, asking, listening, and reading, or else secondhand through the experience of others. in that location are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behavior of all individuals that can be identified and used to depart conclusions based on individual differences.The consistencies allow predictability. doctrinal study means smell at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and basing our conclusions on scientific evidence that is, on data gathered under controlled conditions and measured and interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner. Systematic study replaces intuition or those wild sweet pea feelings you often hear experienced managers verbalize about. While some of our appraisals may prove highly effective in explaining and predicting the behavior of others, we all carry with us a nu mber of beliefs that frequently fail to explain why people do what they do.This leads because many of the views we hold concerning human behavior are based on intuition rather than fact. There is a better way a systematic approach to the study of behavior can emend your instructive and predictive abilities and will uncover important facts and relationships, and provide a base from which more stainless predictions of behavior can be made. Most behavior does not occur randomly it generally has a cause caused and direction based upon some end that the individual believes, rightly or wrongly, is in his or her best interest. Because of differences between individuals counterbalance in similar mail services, people do not all act alike. 5.What are the major behavioral recognition disciplines that work to OB? The major behavioral science disciplines that contribute to OB are such as Psychology, Sociology, Social psychology, Anthropology and Political science.6.Why are there few ab solutes in OB? There are few, if any, simple and habitual principles that explain organizational behavior. There are laws in the physical science-chemistry, astronomy, physics that are consistent and apply in a wide range of situations. They allow scientists to deduct about the pull of gravity or to be confident about displace astronauts into space repair satellite. But as a noted behavioral tec aptly concluded, god gave all the clean problems to the physicists.Human being are complete, because they are not alike, our ability to make simple, accurate and sweeping generalizations is limited. Two people often act very otherwise in the same situation, and the same persons behavior changes in different situations. For instance, not everyone is motivated by money, and you behave differently at church on sunlight than you did at the party the night before. That doesnt mean, of course that we cant propose reasonably accurate explanations of human behavior or make valid predictions. However, it does mean that OB concepts must reflect situational, or contingency, conditions.We can say that x leads to y, but only under conditions specified in z. the science of OB was developed by using general concepts and then altering their application to the particular situations. So, for example, OB scholars would avoid stating that effective leaders should always look the ideas of their follower before making the decision. Rather, in some situations participative style is distinctly superior. But, in other situations, an autocratic decision-making style is more effective. In other words, the effectiveness of a particular leadership style is particular on the situation in which its used.Organizational BehaviourOrganizations and Behavior prorogue of Contents Introduction 4 Learning outcome 1 Understand the relationship between organizational Structure and Culture.. 4 1. 1 Compare and contrast different organizational structures and culture4 1. 2 apologize how the relatio nship between an organizations structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business. 1. 3 Discuss the factors which influence individual behavior at work. 6 Learning Outcomes 2 Understand different approaches to management and leadership 7 2. 1 compare the effectiveness of different leadership styles in different organizations7 2. 2 explain how organizational theory underpins the practice of management7 2. 3 evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations8 Learning Outcomes 3 Understand ways of using motivational theories in organizations.. 9 3. 1 Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in periods of change9 3. Compare the application of different motivational theories within the workplace9 3. 3 Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers10 Learning Outcome 4 Understand mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations.. 11 4. 1 explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations12 4. 2 discuss factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective teamwork in organizations12 4. evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organization. 13 Conclusion 12 Introduction The employees of an organization can be motivated by the continuous organizational culture and the structural representation of the company. The naming involves the comprehension of the relationship between organizational culture and structure, the leadership approaches, the basic concepts about motivation etc.Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and individual. Organizational culture can be reflected through the systematic procedure of the organizational structure. Learning outcome 1 Understand the relationship between organizational Structure and Culture. 1. 1 Compare and contrast different organizational structures and culturesAccording toSchein(1992), culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. Culture and structure is working like a backbone in the organization. It creates a new concepts and strategies which can affect any level of planning. When it applies on any hierarchy organization. So then implications of organizational culture and structure will be implemented to the government companies etc. Different form of Organization Cultures * Power Culture * Person culture * Task Culture Role Culture Power culture is centralized this culture may found in the clear kinds a business control is the basic element the decision maker is all there is no consultancy the organization may react quickly to the danger. Basically this kind of culture is a welfare non profitable, charities and for the social activities. This kind of culture can be in the group or individual aim. It is basically a team work based approach to complete a particular task. This culture is more common the business where the organization will present a project team to complete the project in the particular time.Common in most organizations today is a role culture. In a role culture, organizations are split into various functions and each individual within the function is assigned a particular role. Different form of Organization Structures * Functional structure * Divisional structure * Matrix structure Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a specialized set of tasks. This leads to operational efficiencies within that group. As a whole, a functional organization is best suited as a producer of standardized goods and services at large volume and low cost.Also called a product structure, the divisional structure groups each organizational function into a division. Each division may have it s own sales, engineering and merchandising departments. The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This structure can combination the best of both separate structures. A matrix organization frequently uses teams of employees to accomplish work, in order to take returns of the strengths, as well as make up for the weaknesses, of functional and decentralized forms. 1. explain how the relationship between an organizations structure and culture can impact on the performance of the business. For an organisation to achieve its goals and objectives there must be harmony between its structure and culture. If the two are not compatible then it will become harder for the organisation to achieve its objectives and in the long run may even threaten the existence of the organization. An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. (Pugh, D. S. e d. 1990). Organization culture is the set of values, rules, beliefs, attitudes and regulations these factors can help members of the organization to know how we will Work. For example, lash Company is the biggest multinational company with many product lines. Employees are functional specialists dexterous according to the product or market distribution. Develop the behavior of employees they develop culture which they need. Culture depends upon the nature of employees it according to that culture. Culture does not remain the same but the unwanted culture will changed according to new environment.Every organization has their own culture and structure its very important for every organization in a culture there are many people belonging to the different groups. Every organization needs good culture, good social norms, valves and ethical behavior. 1. 3 Discuss the factors which influence individual behavior at work. How individuals behave and how organisations can motivate them to gi ve more to the organisation has been the subject of various research and many well known writers have written books on this subject.The behavior of people and other organisms or even mechanisms falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. Human behavior is experienced throughout an individuals entire lifetime. The factors and the rising points that influence the individual behavior at work are referred below * big businessman to perform a job * spot to the organization * Motivational factors * Organizational Culture and faith * Present Condition of the private Learning Outcomes 2 Understand different approaches to management and leadership 2. compare the effectiveness of different leadership styles in different organizations Different form of leadership styles of leadership are refereeing below * tyrannic The authoritarian leadership style is when the leader spends most of his time giving out instructio ns. This type of leader tells their followers what to do, how to do it and when to do it. * Autocratic leadership This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. * Delegative leaders In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions.However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. * Democratic / Participative The democratic leader on the other hand, encourages follower to participate and give ideas. This type of leader allows the others to get involved in the decision making process. * Democratic leadership This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it).However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. 2. 2 explain h ow organizational theory underpins the practice of management. Taylor (1911) observed that some workers were more talented than others, and that even sassy ones were often unmotivated. He observed that most workers who are forced to perform repetitive tasks tend to work at the slowest rate that goes unpunished. Taylor used the term shirking and observed that, when paid the same amount, workers will tend to do the amount of work that the slowest among them does.Many people strive to hold to the theory to help them become better at their jobs or more successful in life, although this may lead to them having to fall in some of their personal principles in order to succeed. One example of following organizational theory in the financial sector would be an employee or manager who wants to know how to achieve goals by having a set structure to follow. In addition, someone in a Human Resources sector will have to make decisions throughout their working day that will undoubtedly change the structure and practice of a working day for all other employees in the company.If an individual gets so wrapped up in trying to fit the tramp of what they interpret their role should be in terms of organizational theory, they may start to neglect other areas of business. In the same way, management theory may also underpin the personal values of some individuals. 2. 3 evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations One of the reasons why managers are having such bar in applying management methods to government problems is this there are many different schools of intellection on management approaches, and each of these schools has its own proponents.Generally, an original proponent makes his or her call forth in that particular concept, and becomes an expert and a guru of it. There is little incentive to integrate this one approach with others. - Management flexibility - A manager who only has experience in one approach, such as project managem ent, may have difficulty in adapting to changing demands. A manager can be much more effective if he or she is able to pack a management approach that is most appropriate to the desired need or goal.This adaptability or eclectic flexibility may prove very useful in the changing government management environment. The Toyota Way is a set of principles and behaviors that underlie the Toyota Motor Corporations managerial approach and production system. Toyota first summed up its philosophy, values and manufacturing ideals in 2001, calling it The Toyota Way 2001. It consists of principles in two key areas continuous improvement, and respect for people. Liker (2004), calls the Toyota Way, a system designed to provide the tools for people to continually improve their work. The system can be summarized in 14 principles. - - - - Learning Outcomes 3 Understand ways of using motivational theories in organizations 3. 1 Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in periods of change Motivation can be considered in two major modes, intrinsic and extrinsic. inwrought motivation is that which comes from within the individual, team, group, or organization.Its execution brings about production and self-actualization. Extrinsic motivation is that which originates outside of the individual or organization under scrutiny. The fulfillment of external motivation results in what Lawler (1973) calls social rewards. Dyer, (1972) defines three areas stirred by motivation. A Change in amount, quality, or direction of performance. Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior peculiarly human behavior. These reasons may include a drive, a need, a desire to achieve a goal, a state of being, or an ideal.In human beings, motivation involves both conscious and subconscious drives. Developing leadership culture all starts with you and all your colleagues in senior leadership . Three state ments can be pointed that would not find in the treatment of change . First, in this new world order, your new work as a leader is about developing culture and talents not about assigning it to someone else that all culture development & change starts with you. Second, the key to successful transformation is doing the work in the senior leadership culture first before taking the change to middle of the organizationThird ,transformation is serious it work for serious people, it is about getting bigger minds to deal with attachments bigger and complex issues that will continue to confront you, your leadership and your organization 3. 2 Compare the application of different motivational theories within the workplace Motivation is a word used to refer to the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially human behavior. These reasons may include a drive, a need, a desire to achieve a goal, a state of being, or an ideal. In human beings, motivation involves both consc ious and subconscious drives.Motivation Theories Cognitive dissonance Theory Cognition is any element of knowledge an attitude, emotion, belief, value, behavior, etc. When two cognitions are in direct conflict with one another a state of anxiety is produced dissonance is the term for the anxiety. Compatible cognitions are consonant i. e. they are in harmony. A classic example of Cognitive dissension is holding the belief that smoking is naughty for you while continuing the behavior of smoking. These two cognitions are in direct conflict with each other.The belief that smoking is uncool is part of one neural network perhaps associated with health and fitness while the behavior of smoking is part of another network having to do with tension management, how to hang with friends, or the like. So, these cognitions exist in different locations in the brain. Both are trying to accomplish something important for the self tension management and hanging with friends is important. M aslows Hierarchy of ineluctably The American psychologist Abraham Maslow devised a six-level hierarchy of needs that motivate or drive human behavior.I believe that each of these needs must be met in order for one to achieve happiness. Maslow progressively ranks human needs as follows Physiological food, shelter, clothing trade protection and safety Love and feelings of belonging Competence, prestige, and honor Curiosity and the need to know Self-Actualization 3. 3 Evaluate the usefulness of a motivation theory for managers Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following benefits it provides- * Builds affable relationship Improves level of efficiency of employees * Leads to achievement of organizational goals * Leads to stability of work force * Puts human resources into action Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book The Human Side Of Enterprise. McGregors XY Theory the Great Compromiser cen tral to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. McGregors ideas suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results.Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop. Learning Outcome 4 Understand mechanisms for developing effective teamwork in organizations 4. 1 explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations Groups may be classified into two different types * Informal groups * Formal groups Formal Groups Formal groups are created to achieve set goals and have particularized responsibilities within an organization. Formal groups within organizations are known as work teams or simply teams.Examples of work teams include, call centre teams and project teams. Informal Groups Informal groups consist of alliances that have no formal structure. Informal or social clubs. For instance, unless the HRD function communicates the policies clearly and cogently, the employees would not participate and comply with them wholeheartedly. Hence, work group behavior is important for organizations. However, this cannot be construed to mean that all employees must speculate and act alike. On the contrary, innovation cannot go by when group behavior is the same across all levels. 4. discuss factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective Teamwork in organizations. Creating and sustaining effective teamwork requires persistent variation and discovery of good practice. Organisations which try to create positive relationships between employees and makes each employee feel as part of the community, will have a greater chance of achieving effective teamwork across the organisation. An effective team requires gluiness that is held together by several factors. In order to understand how to assemble an efficient team, first need to know the factors touch on effecti ve teamwork.The factors that may promote or inhibit the development of effective Teamwork in organizations are * Communication skills and process * Inter-team co-operation. * leading Technique * Task effectiveness * Team dynamism * Team innovation * Team members well-being * Team viability * Team working environment, process or tools 4. 3 evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organization. New technology has been injected into the workplace at an exponentially change magnitude rate Many companies see new technology as the means to increase profit margins and to remain competitive in a rapidly evolving marketplace.The introduction of technology, especially information technology has changed composition of active team models and has introduced new team models such as virtual teams. Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004), define virtual teams in their literature review article as groups of geographically, organizationally and/or time dispersed workers brought together by information and telecommunication technologies to accomplish one or more organizational tasks. Conclusion An organization can do better through the practice of Team work and straitlaced utilization of technologies and resources. In the report we have overlooked different management approaches, styles and the motivational approaches which can reflect through the organization structures and culture. So consequently the organization must review the tasks that have been performing according to the management plan and identify the best way to act